Evidence-based·Last reviewed May 31, 2026·How we grade evidence

Cod Liver Oil

Fatty-acidOmega-3Best with a meal

A traditional Scandinavian supplement pressed from cod liver — distinct from regular 'fish oil' because it contains preformed vitamin A and vitamin D alongside EPA/DHA. Real evidence for modest RA symptom relief, observational signals for childhood type 1 diabetes prevention, and a long history in rickets prevention. The defining caution is HIGH VITAMIN A — pregnant women should NOT take cod liver oil.

Quick decision guide

May help most

Adults wanting vitamin A + vitamin D + modest omega-3 in one traditional supplement; people with RA wanting an NSAID-sparing adjunct; people in low-sun-exposure regions using it as historical Scandinavian populations did.

Common dosing range

1 teaspoon (~5 mL) per day for general use — typically provides ~1000 mg total omega-3 (with ~400–600 mg combined EPA + DHA), 800–1500 mcg RAE vitamin A, and 250–1000 IU vitamin D.

When to expect effects

Weeks for vitamin D status and triglycerides; months (3–9) for RA symptom outcomes.

Watch out for

DO NOT take during pregnancy or if trying to conceive — high preformed vitamin A is teratogenic. Stacking cod liver oil with a multivitamin or separate vitamin A supplement easily exceeds the 3,000 mcg RAE/day vitamin A upper limit.

Evidence snapshot

Vitamin D status (low-sun populations)Moderate

Rheumatoid arthritis (NSAID sparing)Moderate

Childhood type 1 diabetes (observational)Emerging

Cardiovascular outcomes (extrapolated from EPA/DHA)Emerging

Rickets prevention (historical)Historical

What is it

Cod Liver Oil is a fat or oil ingredient used in dietary supplements and foods. Found on roughly 1,095 U.S. supplement labels.

Is it worth it for you?

Use this as a quick fit check, not a diagnosis.

Worth considering if…

You want a single supplement that combines vitamin A, vitamin D and modest omega-3 — and you know your baseline vitamin A status is not already high

You have rheumatoid arthritis and want to try an NSAID-sparing adjunct, alongside disease-modifying therapy

You live in a low-sun region (high latitude, indoor lifestyle) and your vitamin D status is documented as low

You're following a traditional Scandinavian diet pattern and want a long-history supplement

Probably skip if…

You're pregnant, trying to conceive, or breastfeeding — high preformed vitamin A is teratogenic; use a prenatal vitamin instead

You take a multivitamin or other vitamin A supplement — stacking easily exceeds the UL of 3,000 mcg RAE/day

You take a high-dose vitamin D supplement — adding cod liver oil's vitamin D may push you above the 4,000 IU/day UL

You take warfarin or other anticoagulants — discuss with prescriber; vitamin K and omega-3 both affect bleeding

You want a high-dose omega-3 effect (≥2 g EPA + DHA/day) — concentrated fish oil delivers more EPA/DHA per teaspoon without the vitamin A load

You have liver disease — high preformed retinol stresses an already-compromised liver

Evidence at a glance

Goal	Effect	Best fit	Time
Vitamin D status and rickets prevention Strong Evidence	Each 1000 IU/day raises 25(OH)D by ~10 ng/mL in deficient adults	Children and adults in low-sun environments; people with documented low vitamin D	8–12 weeks for steady-state 25(OH)D
Rheumatoid arthritis (NSAID sparing) Good Evidence	39% vs 10% achieved ≥30% NSAID reduction at 9 months	Adults with rheumatoid arthritis seeking an NSAID-sparing nutritional adjunct alongside DMARDs	Months (the trial measured outcomes at 9 months)
Childhood type 1 diabetes risk reduction (observational) Limited Evidence	Maternal use OR 0.30 (95% CI 0.12–0.75); infant use OR 0.74 (95% CI 0.56–0.99)	Families in Scandinavian populations with elevated T1D risk and low sun exposure	Years (the relevant outcome is autoimmunity in childhood)
Cardiovascular (EPA + DHA extrapolation) Limited Evidence	Modest triglyceride reduction from omega-3 content; cardiovascular event reduction unproven for cod liver oil specifically	People wanting modest omega-3 from a traditional source	Weeks for triglycerides; years for hard CV outcomes
Childhood respiratory infections Mixed Evidence	Reduced URI clinic visits in an open trial — not placebo-controlled	Children with documented low vitamin D status	Months

Vitamin D status and rickets prevention

Strong Evidence

Effect: Each 1000 IU/day raises 25(OH)D by ~10 ng/mL in deficient adults
Best fit: Children and adults in low-sun environments; people with documented low vitamin D
Time: 8–12 weeks for steady-state 25(OH)D

Rheumatoid arthritis (NSAID sparing)

Good Evidence

Effect: 39% vs 10% achieved ≥30% NSAID reduction at 9 months
Best fit: Adults with rheumatoid arthritis seeking an NSAID-sparing nutritional adjunct alongside DMARDs
Time: Months (the trial measured outcomes at 9 months)

Childhood type 1 diabetes risk reduction (observational)

Limited Evidence

Effect: Maternal use OR 0.30 (95% CI 0.12–0.75); infant use OR 0.74 (95% CI 0.56–0.99)
Best fit: Families in Scandinavian populations with elevated T1D risk and low sun exposure
Time: Years (the relevant outcome is autoimmunity in childhood)

Cardiovascular (EPA + DHA extrapolation)

Limited Evidence

Effect: Modest triglyceride reduction from omega-3 content; cardiovascular event reduction unproven for cod liver oil specifically
Best fit: People wanting modest omega-3 from a traditional source
Time: Weeks for triglycerides; years for hard CV outcomes

Childhood respiratory infections

Mixed Evidence

Effect: Reduced URI clinic visits in an open trial — not placebo-controlled
Best fit: Children with documented low vitamin D status
Time: Months

Evidence for 5 uses

AI-assisted evidence assessment — talk to your doctor before relying on any single supplement.

Vitamin D status and rickets prevention

Corrects deficiency

Strong Evidence

Cod liver oil's most historically documented role: a traditional source of vitamin D for populations with limited sunlight, used since the 19th century to prevent and treat rickets. One teaspoon provides 250–1000 IU vitamin D depending on product, contributing meaningfully toward the 600–800 IU/day RDA. For adults living in high-latitude, low-sun environments with documented low vitamin D status, daily cod liver oil reliably raises 25(OH)D.

Effect size

Each 1000 IU/day raises 25(OH)D by ~10 ng/mL in deficient adults

Time to effect

8–12 weeks for steady-state 25(OH)D

Best fit

Children and adults in low-sun environments; people with documented low vitamin D

Less likely

Adults with adequate sun exposure and vitamin D-fortified dairy intake

Bottom line: A reliable vitamin D source — but a dedicated vitamin D3 supplement gives you the dose without the vitamin A load.

SourceNIH ODS Vitamin D Health Professional Fact Sheet — NIH Office of Dietary Supplements

Rheumatoid arthritis (NSAID sparing)

Disease adjunct

Good Evidence

Galarraga et al. 2008 randomised 97 RA patients to cod liver oil 10 g/day (providing 2.2 g EPA + DHA) or placebo for 9 months. 39% of cod liver oil patients reduced daily NSAID requirement by ≥30% vs 10% on placebo. Joint counts, pain scores, and quality-of-life trended favorably. Mechanism is believed to be the EPA + DHA anti-inflammatory effect, similar to high-dose fish oil RA trials. Cod liver oil's vitamin A and D add modest additional anti-inflammatory potential.

Effect size

39% vs 10% achieved ≥30% NSAID reduction at 9 months

Time to effect

Months (the trial measured outcomes at 9 months)

Best fit

Adults with rheumatoid arthritis seeking an NSAID-sparing nutritional adjunct alongside DMARDs

Less likely

RA patients in remission on biologics; people with high baseline vitamin A intake

Bottom line: A real NSAID-sparing signal for RA. Stays as ADJUNCT — never replace DMARDs.

SourceGalarraga et al., 2008 — Rheumatology (Oxford)

Childhood type 1 diabetes risk reduction (observational)

Supplement benefit

Limited Evidence

Norwegian case-control studies (Stene 2000, Stene & Joner 2003) found childhood cod liver oil use in the first year of life associated with ~25% lower type 1 diabetes risk, and maternal cod liver oil intake during pregnancy associated with ~70% lower offspring type 1 diabetes risk. The signal is observational and likely reflects combined vitamin D + omega-3 effects. Confounding (cod liver oil users may differ systematically in other diet or genetic factors) cannot be ruled out without an RCT.

Effect size

Maternal use OR 0.30 (95% CI 0.12–0.75); infant use OR 0.74 (95% CI 0.56–0.99)

Time to effect

Years (the relevant outcome is autoimmunity in childhood)

Best fit

Families in Scandinavian populations with elevated T1D risk and low sun exposure

Less likely

Populations with adequate vitamin D from fortification and high background omega-3 intake

Bottom line: Interesting Scandinavian observational signal — not strong enough to recommend cod liver oil as T1D prevention, but a reason not to dismiss historical use.

Evidence is mixed

Observational data only; no confirmatory RCTs. The TEDDY and DAISY cohorts have not consistently replicated the cod-liver-oil signal in different populations.

SourceStene et al., 2000 — American Journal of Clinical Nutrition· conflicting

SourceStene et al., 2000 — American Journal of Clinical Nutrition Stene & Joner, 2003 — American Journal of Clinical Nutrition

Cardiovascular (EPA + DHA extrapolation)

Supplement benefit

Limited Evidence

Cod liver oil provides EPA + DHA, but typically less per teaspoon (400–600 mg combined) than concentrated fish oil capsules (500–1000+ mg per capsule). The CV evidence base for omega-3 supplements is mixed (positive for high-dose EPA in REDUCE-IT, neutral overall in VITAL and ASCEND for general prevention). Cod liver oil's EPA+DHA contribution is modest unless dosed at multiple teaspoons/day, which then pushes vitamin A intake into UL territory.

Effect size

Modest triglyceride reduction from omega-3 content; cardiovascular event reduction unproven for cod liver oil specifically

Time to effect

Weeks for triglycerides; years for hard CV outcomes

Best fit

People wanting modest omega-3 from a traditional source

Less likely

People needing high-dose EPA/DHA for hypertriglyceridemia — use prescription icosapent ethyl or high-concentration fish oil

Bottom line: Modest omega-3 dose — fine as part of a varied diet, not a substitute for high-dose EPA when you actually need it.

SourceGalarraga et al., 2008 — Rheumatology (Oxford)

Childhood respiratory infections

Supplement benefit

Mixed Evidence

Linday et al. 2002 open trial in 94 young children combined cod liver oil with a multivitamin containing selenium for 4–7 months and reported fewer clinic visits for upper respiratory infections vs a historical comparison. Open, uncontrolled, combined intervention — too weak to recommend cod liver oil for paediatric infection prevention on its own.

Effect size

Reduced URI clinic visits in an open trial — not placebo-controlled

Time to effect

Months

Best fit

Children with documented low vitamin D status

Less likely

Otherwise healthy children with adequate vitamin D from fortified foods

Bottom line: Preliminary data only; address vitamin D status directly if that's the goal.

SourceLinday et al., 2002 — Annals of Otology, Rhinology & Laryngology

How it works

Cod Liver Oil contributes fatty acids and, depending on the source, fat-soluble vitamins or other lipid-soluble compounds. In a supplement, it may be used to deliver other nutrients, serve as a carrier oil, or be sold for its own fatty acid profile. Effects on health depend on which fatty acids it contains and how much you consume.

How to take it

1. Typical dose

• 1 teaspoon (~5 mL) of liquid cod liver oil per day for general use • Capsules: 1–4 softgels per day depending on potency (read the label — vitamin A and D content vary widely) • RA adjunct dose used in Galarraga 2008: 10 g/day liquid cod liver oil (~2.2 g EPA + DHA) • ALWAYS check vitamin A content per serving and stay under 3,000 mcg RAE/day from ALL sources

2. Higher studied dose

10 g/day liquid (about 2 teaspoons) in the Galarraga RA trial — this dose can deliver 1,500–3,000 mcg RAE vitamin A/day, approaching the adult UL. Don't go higher without medical guidance.

3. Timing

Take with a meal that contains some fat — improves absorption of all the fat-soluble vitamins and omega-3. Morning or evening is fine; consistency matters more than time of day.

4. With food

With a fat-containing meal.

5. Split dosing

Single daily dose is fine at 1 teaspoon. Split if dosing 10 g/day for RA — easier on the stomach.

6. How long to try

Continuous for vitamin D maintenance if that's the goal. Evaluate RA response at 3–6 months. Re-check vitamin A and D status (and 25(OH)D, ferritin if you're stacking with prenatal multis) at least annually if using long-term.

What to track

25(OH)D level after 8–12 weeks if vitamin D status is the goal

Total daily vitamin A intake from ALL sources (label + multivitamin + liver, eggs, dairy if substantial)

Joint pain, swelling, NSAID frequency if using for RA — keep a simple log

Triglycerides if using for omega-3 effect

Symptoms of vitamin A toxicity at sustained high doses: headache, blurred vision, dry skin, hair loss, bone pain

Bottom line: Stick to ~1 teaspoon/day with a meal. Add up your TOTAL vitamin A intake (cod liver oil + multivitamin + liver / eggs / dairy) and stay under 3,000 mcg RAE/day. Pregnancy: don't.

5 commercial forms

Compare the main delivery options and what they’re best suited for.

Liquid cod liver oil (refrigerated, flavoured)

Traditional

The classic Scandinavian product. Easier to dose precisely (1 teaspoon) and to taste freshness. Lemon-flavoured versions mask the fishy taste. Use within 90 days of opening; refrigerate to slow oxidation.

All fat-soluble vitamins and omega-3 well absorbed with a fatty meal.

Cod liver oil softgels / capsules

Convenient

Sealed capsules protect against oxidation longer than liquid. Multiple softgels needed to match a teaspoon's volume; read the label for total daily vitamin A and D when taking 2–4 capsules.

Equivalent to liquid; per-capsule potency is lower so more capsules needed for trial doses.

Fish oil (body oil) — different supplement

No vitamin A/D

Pressed from fish body tissue, NOT liver. Contains EPA + DHA without significant vitamin A or D. The form used in most large omega-3 cardiovascular trials. Preferred when you want high EPA + DHA without the vitamin A load — and the only safe choice in pregnancy.

Higher EPA + DHA per teaspoon than cod liver oil; check label.

Fish liver oil (other species)

Variable composition

Pressed from pollock, haddock, or other cod-family livers. Composition (especially vitamin A and D) varies more than canonical cod liver oil. Sold under generic 'fish liver oil' labelling; lives at a separate nutrient page.

Vitamin A and D content highly variable by source species.

Algae-based DHA (vegetarian)

Pregnancy-safe omega-3

Provides DHA (some products also EPA) without vitamin A, vitamin D, or fish-sourcing concerns. The preferred omega-3 form for pregnancy and for vegetarians.

DHA bioavailability comparable to fish-derived; less EPA in most algae products.

Safety

Know the common side effects, key cautions, and who should avoid it.

Common side effects

fishy aftertaste or fishy belchingmild GI upsetloose stool at higher dosesrancid taste from old / poorly stored product

Serious risks

TERATOGENICITY: high preformed vitamin A (retinol) intake in early pregnancy raises risk of cranial-neural-crest-tissue birth defects. Rothman 1995 found intake >10,000 IU (3,000 mcg RAE)/day was associated with a 4.8-fold increase. NHS UK and most national bodies explicitly advise pregnant women NOT to take cod liver oil.
SourceRothman et al., 1995 — New England Journal of Medicine NHS UK — Vitamins and supplements in pregnancy — NHS
Vitamin A toxicity (chronic hypervitaminosis A) from sustained intake above the UL of 3,000 mcg RAE/day: hepatotoxicity, intracranial hypertension, bone loss, hair loss, dry skin, blurred vision, birth defects. Stacking cod liver oil with multivitamins or liver-rich diets makes this easier than it sounds.
SourceNIH ODS Vitamin A Health Professional Fact Sheet — NIH Office of Dietary Supplements
Vitamin D toxicity is rare but possible at sustained intake above the 4,000 IU/day UL — hypercalcemia, kidney stones, calcified soft tissue.
SourceNIH ODS Vitamin D Health Professional Fact Sheet — NIH Office of Dietary Supplements
Bleeding risk: omega-3 EPA/DHA can mildly inhibit platelet aggregation; effect is small at typical cod liver oil doses but stacks with anticoagulants and high-dose fish oil.
SourceGalarraga et al., 2008 — Rheumatology (Oxford)
Heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants accumulate in fish liver. Choose products with third-party heavy-metal testing.
SourceNIH ODS Vitamin A Health Professional Fact Sheet — NIH Office of Dietary Supplements

Who should avoid it

Anyone pregnant, planning pregnancy, or breastfeeding — use a prenatal vitamin (which uses beta-carotene, not retinol, for vitamin A) and a separate vitamin D + DHA supplement.
SourceRothman et al., 1995 — New England Journal of Medicine NHS UK — Vitamins and supplements in pregnancy — NHS
Anyone already taking a multivitamin with significant preformed vitamin A (retinol), or eating liver, paté, or large amounts of fortified dairy.
SourceNIH ODS Vitamin A Health Professional Fact Sheet — NIH Office of Dietary Supplements
People with liver disease, osteoporosis, or active alcohol use disorder — vitamin A toxicity risk is elevated in all three.
SourceNIH ODS Vitamin A Health Professional Fact Sheet — NIH Office of Dietary Supplements
People taking warfarin or DOACs — discuss with prescriber; consistent intake matters more than total amount.
SourceGalarraga et al., 2008 — Rheumatology (Oxford)
People taking isotretinoin or other oral retinoid drugs — additive vitamin A load is unsafe.
SourceNIH ODS Vitamin A Health Professional Fact Sheet — NIH Office of Dietary Supplements

Pregnancy & breastfeeding

DO NOT use cod liver oil during pregnancy. The high preformed vitamin A content is teratogenic in early pregnancy. For pregnancy needs, use a standard prenatal vitamin (which uses beta-carotene instead of retinol), plus a separate vitamin D supplement if recommended, plus a dedicated DHA supplement (algae-based or low-vitamin-A fish oil) if your prenatal doesn't include enough. Breastfeeding: same caution — high maternal vitamin A passes into milk.

SourceRothman et al., 1995 — New England Journal of Medicine NHS UK — Vitamins and supplements in pregnancy — NHS

Bottom line: Watch the vitamin A. Never in pregnancy. At 1 teaspoon/day with food, otherwise generally safe for adults.

Interactions

Preformed vitamin A supplements (retinyl palmitate, retinyl acetate)Major

Cumulative vitamin A exposure can quickly exceed the 3,000 mcg RAE/day UL. Don't stack cod liver oil with a vitamin A supplement or a high-retinol multivitamin.

SourceNIH ODS Vitamin A Health Professional Fact Sheet — NIH Office of Dietary Supplements

Isotretinoin and other oral retinoid drugsMajor

Additive vitamin A toxicity; substantially increased risk of hepatotoxicity, hyperlipidaemia, and (in pregnancy) teratogenicity. Avoid cod liver oil while on isotretinoin.

SourceNIH ODS Vitamin A Health Professional Fact Sheet — NIH Office of Dietary Supplements

Warfarin and other vitamin-K-antagonist anticoagulantsModerate

Vitamin A and omega-3 both affect coagulation; cod liver oil intake should be kept consistent (not stop-start) and discussed with the prescriber.

SourceGalarraga et al., 2008 — Rheumatology (Oxford)

High-dose vitamin D supplementsModerate

Stacking with separate vitamin D3 supplementation can exceed the 4,000 IU/day UL and risk hypercalcemia. Total daily vitamin D intake should be tracked.

SourceNIH ODS Vitamin D Health Professional Fact Sheet — NIH Office of Dietary Supplements

Orlistat (Xenical / Alli)Moderate

Orlistat blocks fat absorption and substantially reduces uptake of fat-soluble vitamins A and D plus omega-3. Take cod liver oil at least 2 hours apart.

SourceNIH ODS Vitamin A Health Professional Fact Sheet — NIH Office of Dietary Supplements

Bile acid sequestrants (cholestyramine, colesevelam)Moderate

Reduce absorption of fat-soluble nutrients including vitamins A and D and omega-3. Separate by several hours.

SourceNIH ODS Vitamin A Health Professional Fact Sheet — NIH Office of Dietary Supplements

Direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs: apixaban, rivaroxaban, dabigatran)Minor

Omega-3 has mild antiplatelet effect; at typical cod liver oil doses interaction is minor but stacks with the underlying anticoagulant.

SourceGalarraga et al., 2008 — Rheumatology (Oxford)

Food sources

Food	Amount	%DV
Cod liver oil, 1 teaspoon (~4.5 g)	1 tsp (~890 mg total omega-3; ~890 mcg RAE vit A; ~450 IU vit D)	99%
Cod liver, raw	100 g (very high preformed vitamin A — avoid in pregnancy)	—
Fatty fish (salmon, mackerel, sardines)	3 oz (~1500–2000 mg total omega-3; modest vit D; minimal preformed vit A)	—
Egg yolk	1 yolk (~80 mcg RAE vit A; ~40 IU vit D)	9%
Beef liver, cooked	3 oz (~6500 mcg RAE vit A — avoid stacking with cod liver oil and avoid in pregnancy)	722%
Whole milk, fortified	1 cup (~150 mcg RAE vit A; ~115 IU vit D)	17%

Cod liver oil, 1 teaspoon (~4.5 g)

Amount: 1 tsp (~890 mg total omega-3; ~890 mcg RAE vit A; ~450 IU vit D)
%DV: 99%

Cod liver, raw

Amount: 100 g (very high preformed vitamin A — avoid in pregnancy)
%DV: —

Fatty fish (salmon, mackerel, sardines)

Amount: 3 oz (~1500–2000 mg total omega-3; modest vit D; minimal preformed vit A)
%DV: —

Egg yolk

Amount: 1 yolk (~80 mcg RAE vit A; ~40 IU vit D)
%DV: 9%

Beef liver, cooked

Amount: 3 oz (~6500 mcg RAE vit A — avoid stacking with cod liver oil and avoid in pregnancy)
%DV: 722%

Whole milk, fortified

Amount: 1 cup (~150 mcg RAE vit A; ~115 IU vit D)
%DV: 17%

Choosing a product

What to look for on the label — and what to be skeptical of.

Look for…

Vitamin A (as retinol) AND vitamin D content per serving clearly listed in mcg RAE and IU — not just 'vitamins A and D'

Total EPA + DHA per serving in mg — needed to compare with fish oil

Third-party testing for heavy metals (mercury, lead, cadmium, arsenic) and PCBs — fish livers concentrate these

Antioxidants added (vitamin E / tocopherols) to prevent rancidity

Recent manufacturing date — cod liver oil oxidises over months

Refrigerated liquid form for best freshness, or dark-glass amber bottles

Source species disclosed (Atlantic cod, Gadus morhua, is the canonical product)

Be skeptical of…

Use during pregnancy or 'for pregnancy support' — directly contradicts NHS/USA guidance on retinol teratogenicity

Mega-dose products (>3,000 mcg RAE vitamin A or >2,000 IU vitamin D per serving) marketed for daily lifetime use

'Same as fish oil' marketing — cod liver oil and fish (body) oil differ in vitamin A/D content and that matters

Untested cod liver oil from artisanal or non-vetted sources — fish livers accumulate contaminants

'Cures' for arthritis, asthma, diabetes, or cancer — the evidence supports modest adjunctive roles at best

'Fermented cod liver oil' marketing as superior — fermentation can degrade vitamins and omega-3, and stability claims are not well-validated

Frequently asked questions

Is Cod Liver Oil healthy?⌄

It depends on the fatty acid profile. Cod Liver Oil can be part of a balanced diet, but it should fit within overall calorie and fat goals.

Should I take it with food?⌄

Yes. Taking fats with a meal that contains other dietary fat supports absorption.

How should I store it?⌄

Store as directed on the label. Many oils benefit from cool, dark storage to prevent rancidity.

References by claim

Safety

Rothman et al., 1995 — New England Journal of Medicine (1995) link

NIH ODS Vitamin A Health Professional Fact Sheet — NIH Office of Dietary Supplements (2024) link

NHS UK — Vitamins and supplements in pregnancy — NHS link

Childhood type 1 diabetes risk reduction (observational)

Stene et al., 2000 — American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2000) link

Stene & Joner, 2003 — American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2003) link

Rheumatoid arthritis (NSAID sparing)

Galarraga et al., 2008 — Rheumatology (Oxford) (2008) link

Childhood respiratory infections

Linday et al., 2002 — Annals of Otology, Rhinology & Laryngology (2002) link

Vitamin D status and rickets prevention

NIH ODS Vitamin D Health Professional Fact Sheet — NIH Office of Dietary Supplements (2024) link

Other references

Brustad et al., 2020 (COPSAC2010) — JAMA Pediatrics (2020) link

Cod liver oil on Wikidata — Wikidata link

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Evidence-based·Last reviewed May 31, 2026·Evidence current as of May 31, 2026·How we grade evidence

Disclaimer: These statements have not been evaluated by the FDA. This page is educational, not a substitute for personalized medical advice. Evidence grades are AI-assisted assessments — talk to your doctor before starting any new supplement, especially if you’re pregnant, breastfeeding, on medications, or managing a chronic condition.